The term “hypnosis” originated with the work of a Scottish surgeon, James Braid, working in the 1840s,and it comes from the Greek root word hypnos- (meaning sleep). It refers to a state of consciousness that in many ways is like sleep, but allows a variety of mental and behavioral responses to stimulation. In response to suggestions to the unconscious, even memory patterns and the awareness of self may be changed.
When hypnotized by someone else, the subject may appear to relinquish his or her own will—seeing, feeling, smelling, and tasting in accordance with the suggestions given. Depending upon the depth of the hypnotic state and the strength of the suggestions, the subject may even accept as being real certain distortions of memory and perception offered by the hypnotist.
Hypnotic techniques have been used for thousands of years. Certain healing therapies conducted by priests in ancient Egypt, Greece, and China greatly resemble cur–rent hypnosis practices. The modern rediscovery of hypnosis is generally attributed to Dr. Franz Mesmer (1734-1815). An Austrian physician working in Vienna and Paris in the late 1700s, he discovered that some ailing people obtained relief when magnets were brought near their bodies. Patients were instructed to sit as a group around an open container of water in which magnetized metal bars were visible. Occasionally, a patient would seem to fall into a sleep like state and, soon after regaining consciousness, be much improved or even fully cured. Later, Mesmer discovered that the magnets were un–necessary. He found that results could also be obtained in some cases simply by touching the patient or by touching the water before the patient drank it. To his mind, the touching of the water “magnetized it.” Mesmer theorized that he and other people had “animal magnetism”—that they had access to a kind of mysterious “fluid” which was stored within and could be transferred to others and thus effect a healing. Soon there were over 100 groups of people in France performing similar healings; they were called the Society of Harmony.
A protégé of Mesmer, named Chastenet de Puységur, felt that he, too, had this power of “animal magnetism” and magnetized a tree on his property. Peasants living nearby who came in contact with this tree reported obtaining relief from a variety of ailments. However, Puységur soon found that it was unnecessary for people seeking a cure to fall into the convulsive-like fits which often characterized Mesmer’s work (and can still be seen in the present at some charismatic healing services). Using a technique in many ways similar to modern hypnosis, he demonstrated that beneficial results could be obtained simply by talking to the patient.
These developments caused such a stir in Europe that a special investigative committee was appointed in Paris to study the new phenomenon. Benjamin Franklin and Dr. Joseph Guillotin were among those serving on this committee. Their conclusion was that no mysterious magnetic “fluid” exists, and, whereas some of the remarkable cures effected by Mesmer and his followers could not be denied, the committee attributed the healings to “mere imagination.” Largely because of the findings of this committee, hypnosis fell into disrepute and further scientific investigation was neglected.
In the early decades of the 19th century, mesmeric techniques continued to be practiced by some. It was Dr. James Braid who not only gave us the modern term hypnosis but from his hospital work also reached a critical insight about the nature of hypnotic technique. While agreeing that no magnetic fluid was involved in the process, he reaffirmed that something significantly therapeutic was involved. In an effort to separate this phenomenon from theories of animal magnetism, he asserted that the concentration of attention in a single focus was the major factor in stimulating the hypnotic effect.
The late 19th century saw a reawakening of great interest in hypnosis. The Austrian physician, Sigmund Freud, learned of the techniques during visits to France and was impressed by the possibilities of hypnosis for treating neurotic disorders. In his own practice he began to use hypnosis to help some of his patients remember disturbing events from the past. As his system of psychoanalysis began to take shape, however, he rejected deep-state hypnosis in favor of the technique of relaxed-level free association. This may have been at least partly due to difficulties he encountered in hypnotizing certain patients.
In the 20th century there has been an impressive amount of experimental research with this hypnotic phenomenon; however, there is no one theory that is universally accepted by practitioners. Broadly speaking, there are two camps among professionals who work with hypnosis.
On the one hand are those who feel that hypnosis is a distinct altered state of consciousness, in many ways resembling sleep. In this altered state of awareness the subject responds to suggestion in a rather automatic and non-critical fashion. The focus with this theory is the proposed reality of altered states of consciousness.
On the other hand are those who feel that it is unnecessary to theorize about other states of consciousness in order to explain the workings of hypnosis. People operating from this perspective stress that behavior during hypnotic episodes can usually be explained in terms of social or interpersonal dynamics and learned behavior. As examples, they point to the placebo effect, which is demonstrated when a patient obtains relief from a neutral or inert pill given by a doctor simply because the patient has expectations that the physician’s remedy will work. Another example from this point of view would be the ease with which a child or impressionable student will change his or her way of thinking about an issue to match that of an admired parent or teacher. According to this second theory, hypnotic responses are therefore seen as the mere result of interpersonal influences and subtle kinds of learning which don’t require the concept of altered consciousness.
What does research psychology tell us about the induction of the hypnotic state? One helpful ingredient is belief or acceptance on the part of the subject. Responsiveness is increased to the extent that the individual who is being hypnotized believes that it is possible. The depth of hypnotic effect is also enhanced to the extent that the patient feels that what will transpire during the hypnotic session is congruent with his or her “wishes.”
Research also shows that if appropriate preparations are taken, tape-recorded induction procedures may be just as effective as the “live” voice of an experienced hypnotist. This finding is especially significant in light of the procedures recommended in this book. The author will encourage you to make your own self-hypnosis tape recordings and to use the sound of your own voice as an induction.
As a further reassurance about self-control during hypnosis, research indicates that the hypnotic state cannot be induced against the individual’s own desires or will. As previously stated, this places the control within the person himself who is experiencing the hypnotic state.
What does clinical research show about the nature of hypnotic suggestion itself? There are certain qualities of speech that seem to be especially beneficial to the process. Qualities of directness and simplicity—as well as insistent intensity—are often ascribed to effective wordings of suggestion. The use of vivid visual imagery— word pictures, which suggest specific images and invite the participation of the imaginative forces—is especially good. Direct commands are not as effective as a more gentle, implicit, or indicative form of speech. In other words, it’s probably not the best hypnotic suggestion to give an order, such as “raise your arm.” Instead, the hypnotic induction might more indirectly include wording in which it is suggested that the arm is feeling light, or that the arm feels as if it has helium-filled balloons attached to it, etc.
What kinds of results might we expect from hypnosis, either that conducted by a trained professional or that which is conducted by oneself? Research suggests that post-hypnotic suggestions are especially effective in the corrective treatment of strong habit patterns. You will find that many of the suggested hypnotic programs or “cycles” in this book are ones which deal with these kinds of self-limiting habit patterns that many of us en–counter in daily life. In fact, research indicates that post–hypnotic suggestion is more effective in influencing this kind of habitual behavior than it is in influencing more straightforward, trivial tasks. However, for most of us, the need and desire to change ourselves relates not so much to simplistic behaviors in life, but, instead, to more ingrained subconscious habit patterns habits of behavior, attitude or emotion—from which we hope to free ourselves. It is with these habit patterns that we endeavor to get assistance through hypnotic techniques.
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